2.2 Early Heian: New Buddhist sects

In 803, Kanmu sponsored the monks Kūkai and Saichō to take part in a diplomatic trip to Tang China. Saichō (767-822) had started a monastic community on Mt. Hiei. This community according to geomancy was guarding the vulnerable northeast, the Demon Entrance.

In China, Saichō studied on Mt. Tiantai methods of meditation, monastic discipline and orthodox teachings. Saichō got texts and information on Vajrayana (Esoteric) Buddhism. Saichō’s Mikkyō (esoteric Buddhism) received official acknowledgment of the imperial court. Kūkai entered the Xi Ming Temple where he studied Chinese Buddhism and Sanskrit. When Kūkai returned to Japan in 806, he became a court favorite writing poetry, conducting rituals, and writing epitaphs and memorials. In 812, Kūkai became the acknowledged master of esoteric Buddhism when he conducted the public initiation ceremonies for Saichō and others. Kūkai was instrumental in the completion of Tōji Temple in Kyoto.

At Tōji Kūkai put art to the service of religion. Through art, he preached, one could find enlightenment by fixating on the mandala (a stylized representation of Buddhist teachings) and achieve Buddhahood. Kūkai had exclusive use of Tōji for the Shingon sect, which became independent. Shingon (True Word) grew popular. Shingon encouraged mysticism. The aristocracy particularly liked the secret practices of the sect. The commoners liked the chants.

Kūkai was known posthumously as Kōbō-Daishi (The Grand Master Who Propagated the Buddhist Teaching). He also gained fame for civil engineering projects, as a calligrapher and poet, and is believed to be the inventor of the kana, the syllabary with which, in combination with Chinese characters (kanji), the Japanese language is written to this day. Legend has it that Kūkai never died but entered into an eternal samadhi, waiting for Maitreya, the future Buddha.

Saichō founded the Tendai (“heavenly platform”) school. At its peak, its Enryaku-ji complex had 3000 sub-temples and other buildings and an army of warrior monks (sōhei). Tendai was an eclectic set of beliefs. Besides syncretism with Shinto, it incorporated many Buddhist beliefs espousing the Lotus Sutra as the highest sutra (canonical statements from Buddha). The Lotus Sutra has had a great impact on literature and art. Tendai Buddhism was the dominant form of mainstream Buddhism in Japan and many founders of other sects such as Nichiren, Hōnen, Shinran, and Dōgen were trained as Tendai monks.

As the Tang government was starting to collapse in 838, Emperor Ninmyō sent a final diplomatic mission to the Tang Imperial Court. With this mission was the monk Ennin (793-864), known posthumously as Jikaku Daishi. He had studied under Saichō at Enryaku-ji. While his chief contribution was to strengthen the Tendai tantric Buddhist tradition, he introduced the Pure Land recitation practices (nenbutsu) to lay the foundation for the Pure Land movements later on.

Find out about Kanmu’s Succession at 2.3 Early Heian, Kanmu’s Succession