4.4 Muromachi Period: The Rise of the Great Unifiers
Beginning with the Ōnin War, Japan went through over 130 years of warfare, known as The Warring States Period (Sengoku Jidai). But, by the 16th century there emerged several trends favoring unification. Domestic and foreign trade were increasing; there were fewer self-sufficient groups; and there was a general weariness with war. Three warlords appeared who would unify the country: Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), and Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616).
In June 1560, Imagawa Yoshimoto attempted to overthrow the Ashikaga shogunate. On the way to Kyoto, Imagawa’s army passed through the territory of Oda Nobunaga, head of the Oda clan and leader of Owari province. In a surprise attack by Oda, Imagawa Yoshitomo was caught off guard and killed. Oda Nobunaga was victorious in the Battle of Okehazama and Japan would never remain the same.
Nobunaga had assembled an army of masterless samurai who swore allegiance to him. In 1565, a coup was attempted by assassinating Shogun Ashikaga Yoshiteru, and installing Ashikaga Yoshihide as the 14th Ashikaga shogun. A group of shogun retainers recruited Nobunaga’s aid in backing Yoshiaki, the younger brother of Yoshiteru. In 1568, Nobunaga with the emperor’s approval, installed Yoshiaki as the 15th Ashikaga shogun.
Ashikaga Yoshiaki wisely feared and distrusted Oda Nobunaga’s intentions. He formed an alliance in an attempt to defeat Nobunaga. However Nobunaga eventually destroyed those clans and went to Kyoto. Nobunaga established authority by destroying rival daimyō, intransigent Buddhist monks, and recalcitrant merchants without mercy. When Nobunaga attacked Enryakuji, his forces methodically burnt buildings and massacred monks and anyone else they came across on Mt. Hiei, slaughtering thousands. Nobunaga’s reputation as a ruthless and unrelenting foe became widely known and well deserved.
Yoshiaki’s ingratitude was neither forgotten nor forgiven. On August 27, 1573 Nobunaga forced Yoshiaki out of office. Yoshiaki took tonsure, shaved his head, and became a Buddhist monk. Thus the Ashikaga Shogunate came to an inglorious end.
Nobunaga was also busy with his old nemesis, the Takeda clan. In the Battle of Nagashino in 1575, his forces faced the powerful cavalry charge of the Takeda, which Nobunaga answered by his innovation of wooden stockades and rotating volleys of gun fire that destroyed the cavalry charges. Nobunaga was victorious.
Nobunaga had certain policies that were in dramatic contrast to the Ashikaga regime. For instance, Nobunaga sought to counter Buddhists with Christians. Nobunaga encouraged the Jesuits and a small Christian community developed.
Around Kyoto, he instituted economic reform, removing barriers to commerce, such as ending the monopolies held by shrines and guilds and promoting free markets.
Indeed, as Japan began to stabilize after so many years of constant warfare, a new era began one of the most spectacular in Japanese society and culture as the country began to transform itself from a medieval to a modern society. This is known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period, from Nobunaga’s Azuchi Castle and Hideyoshi’s Momoyama Castle in Kyoto. This time period, from 1573 to 1600, is considered the final phase of the Sengoku Period.
Nobunaga’s radical changes did not come about without incurring opposition. Akechi Mitsuhide, one of his most trusted generals, betrayed him. Surrounded and heavily outnumbered, Nobunaga and his son committed seppuku rather than be captured.
With both Nobunaga and his son dead, there was a huge power vacuum. Toyotomi Hideyoshi exacted revenge upon the traitor Akechi Mitsuhide and moved quickly to fill the vacuum.
In the next few years, Hideyoshi took over the Oda holdings. He worked out a settlement with Tokugawa Ieyasu; in exchange for Ieyasu’s family territory, he rewarded Ieyasu with eight Kanto provinces. He gained control of Kyoto. He defeated rival clans and other clans and daimyō either surrendered to him or aligned with him. He was adopted the Fujiwara, taking the surname Toyotomi and was given the title, Kanpaku and later the title of Taikō, or retired regent.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi initiated several measures to reform the country. He had land surveys to assess the national rice production, determined responsibility for taxes and eliminated shiki, the rights attached to land, and extinct estates. He improved commerce and transportation. He confiscated all swords except those of samurai and noblemen, Taiko’s Sword Hunt, depriving peasants and potential adversaries such as the sōhei (fighting monks) of weapons. He arranged the holdings of the daimyō, keeping potential adversaries far away and surrounded himself with the most trusted vassals. To validate his rule, he courted the monarchy, rebuilding Kyoto, and paying for court ceremonies.
He controlled precious metals, minting coins for the first time since 958 and international trade by occupying Nagasaki and regulating the trade associations there. Hideyoshi established foreign trade missions.
In the northern Kanto region The Later Hōjō were the last major clan not to submit to Toyotomi Hideyoshi. In 1590, Toyotomi Hideyoshi gathered a massive army of 200,000 and lay siege on Odawara Castle. Eventually the garrison surrendered from hopelessness or most probably from starvation.
The remaining daimyō surrendered to Hideyoshi and thus Japan was militarily united for the first time in 250 years.